Construction and Engineering Techniques in the Civilization of the 7 Rivers (Indus Civilization), and those of the Oxus and Karakum

Introduction

The ancient Indus, Oxus and Karakum civilisations, located in a region extending from present-day Pakistan, to north-western India, Afghanistan and Turkmenistan, have left remarkable evidence of their mastery of construction and engineering. Although they coexisted at certain periods, each had its specificities, both in terms of the materials used and the technologies employed to meet environmental challenges.

1. Construction Techniques in the Indus Civilization (7 Rivers Civilization)

The Indus Valley Civilization, also called the Harappan Civilization , is famous for its sophisticated urban planning and engineering prowess.

a. Urban planning and planning

– Grid planning: Indus cities like Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa were organized on a grid plan, with wide streets running north-south and east-west.

– Separate districts: Cities were divided into residential, industrial and administrative zones, often with surrounding walls to demarcate them.

b. Construction techniques

– Standardized Bricks: One of the greatest advances of the Indus Civilization was the use of standardized clay bricks of size 1:2:3 for the early period and 1:2:4 for the mature period, which facilitated the construction of uniform and solid buildings.

– Raised structures: Houses were built on raised platforms to protect against flooding, a common phenomenon in this region due to river flooding in summer, during the monsoon.

c. Hydraulic systems

– Sewerage systems: Indus engineers designed one of the first sewage disposal systems, with covered underground pipes.

– Wells and reservoirs: The civilization had public and private wells, lined with trapezoidal bricks, for the supply of drinking water, as well as reservoirs for storing water during the dry season, especially in Gujarat.

2. Construction Techniques in the Oxus Civilization (Bactria-Margiana)

The Oxus Civilization, or Bactro-Margian Archaeological Complex (BMAC), located in the Oxus Plains (Amu Darya), thrived in harsh climatic conditions. They adapted their construction and engineering techniques to the specificities of their environment.

a. Fortifications and urban planning

– Walled Cities: The cities of the Oxus were often surrounded by massive walls to protect them from invasion, indicating a need for increased security in this unstable region.

– Citadels: Inside the cities, citadels or raised palaces were built, often on platforms of compacted earth, showing a hierarchical social organization.

b. Building materials

– Adobe and mud bricks: The buildings were mostly made of mud bricks (adobe), a local material adapted to their arid climate.

– Wooden roofs: Flat roofs were supported by wooden beams, an essential though rare material, extracted from the surrounding more wooded areas.

c. Water management

– Irrigation: In a semi-arid region, irrigation was crucial. The Oxus people set up canal systems to bring water from the rivers to agricultural areas.

– Cisterns: Numerous cisterns have been discovered, indicating advanced engineering to store water during dry periods.

3. Construction Techniques in Karakum Civilization

The Karakum civilization, which thrived in the vast desert expanses of modern Turkmenistan, faced extreme challenges in building sustainable infrastructure.

a. Desert habitat

– Karakum and construction of oasis cities: The inhabitants used techniques similar to those of the Oxus, such as adobe construction, but adaptation to desert conditions required a particularly efficient organization of resources.

– Cave architecture: In some regions, they dug underground dwellings to protect themselves from extreme temperatures.

b. Hydraulic systems and desert engineering

– Qanats: One of the greatest innovations in this region was the use of qanats , underground galleries to capture groundwater. This made it possible to provide water to cities and agricultural lands without suffering the effects of rapid evaporation in the desert.

– Underground reservoirs: Underground reservoirs or kyariz were also built to store water in the desert.

Conclusion

The Indus, Oxus and Karakum civilisations all excelled in the art of engineering and construction, adapting ingeniously to the environmental constraints of their respective regions. While the Indus civilisation impresses with its urban planning and hydraulic systems, the Oxus civilisation is distinguished by its fortifications and water management in a semi-arid climate, while the Karakum people developed innovative techniques for surviving in an unforgiving desert.